Advantages And Disadvantages Of Prefabrication As Construction Method Construction Essay

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Prefabrication As Construction Method Construction Essay The aim of this research is to establish whether an increased use of off-site manufacture will produce a more energy efficient housing stock, as the UK gets closer to its carbon reduction deadline. The objectives of this study are; To identify the key advantages and disadvantages of prefabrication as a construction method, and to establish how these are achievable compared to traditional methods. To identify the current requirements for energy efficiency in new build houses. To identify the requirements of the Climate Change Act 2008 and how this will affect the construction industry. To establish the current use and opinion of prefabrication/off-site manufacture in the construction industry The UK is legally bound to cut its green house gas emissions under the Climate Change Act 2008. These cuts are a 34% reduction by 2022 and an overall 80% reduction by 2050, compared to the baseline emission value from 1990. This is not a scientific quantitative study of the actually energy efficiencies of the construction method, but more of an in-depth qualitative study of the features of prefabrication. This will be done by reviewing existing literature on the topic and comparing this to actual opinions and use in the construction industry. These opinions and the level of implementation of prefabrication within the construction industry will be established using questionnaires. From this analysis it is hoped that there are environmental benefits to using off-site manufacture/prefabrication. This should then be shown in the construction industry by its increasingly use. With the UKs housing stock producing approximately 30% of the UKs total carbon emissions, it is a sector where huge environmental gains can be made (House of Commons 2005). Although the Climate Change Act 2008 is not specifically aimed at the construction industry, the Chief Executive of the Committee on Climate Change, David Kennedy has called for action in four key areas; the method by which electricity is produced, increasing the use of electric transport, reducing the carbon footprint of farms in the UK and an increase in the construction of energy efficient homes (Adam 2010). Many reports, especially from prefabrication manufacturers themselves state the benefits of off-site construction over traditional methods. These include an increased speed of construction, better health and safety conditions on-site, better quality of final product and a lesser total cost when economies of scale apply. However when observing construction sites; off-site construction seems to not be included and traditional methods of construction seem to dominate. This study aims to find out the actual use of prefabricated, off-site components within the industry, and the reasons professionals have for either using, or not using this construction method. The hypothesis for this study states that the current use of off-site manufactured components will have a positive correlation to the perceived benefits from using them. For example if the perceived benefits of the using off-site manufactured components are great, then it is predicted that their use will be common within construction. Conversely if the features of prefabrication are not greatly beneficial compared to traditional methods, it is predicted that the use of off-site manufacture in the construction industry will be low. These assumptions have been made due to common reasoning, being that; if something is more beneficial than another, it will be chosen more often. Some basic problems that may occur in this particular research project could involve the participant design. For example because this is a small scale research project, only a reasonably small number of professionals will be contacted to complete the questionnaire. This will mean that the results from the data collected can not be generalised to the rest of the construction industry. Another problem may occur with the return rate of the questionnaire. The expected return rate is 30%; this means that from the 60 questionnaires sent, around 18 are expected to be returned. Another problem may occur because the information produced about the systems is usually produced by the manufacturers themselves, and may be biased. The hypothesis will be accepted if the primary literature search states that there are clear advantages to prefabrication, and the industry study shows that it is being increasingly used as a construction method. It will be rejected if there is no significant correlation between the reported benefits and the use of the construction method. This dissertation will take the following structure. First a literature review will be undertaken to establish all known information on the subject area. This section will include analysis of literature to establish what the stated benefits of prefabrication are compared to traditional methods of construction. Examples of each construction method will be analysed and areas where the benefits or disadvantages arise will be highlighted. The Climate Change Act 2008 will be reviewed to ascertain the requirements the UK is legally bound to fulfil. The current energy efficiency requirements will be taken from a study of the Building Regulations. Then a methodology will be created which will involve formulating questions that have not been answered from the literature review. A participant design will be identified and a justification for its selection made. The selection and the rationale behind the research method chosen will then be made. The questionnaires will then be sent out and the data analysed from the information collected. A series of tables and graphs will be produced to identify any significance in the results collected. A discussion will then take place to deduce why the data collected has been produced and the impact it may have on the information we already know. Conclusions will then be made that will summarise the findings and show any limitations to the study that should be rectified if done again. This section may highlight areas for further research. At the end of the document, a section of references and appendices will be included. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Prefabrication Prefabrication is a term used to describe the construction of buildings or building components at a location, usually a factory, remote from the building site. (Emmitt, S. 2010) Prefabrication can also be known as off-site prefabrication (OSP), off-site manufacture (OSM) and as a modern method of construction (MMC) (Taylor 2010). It has been used in mass production of housing since the early twentieth century (Arieff, A 2002). Prefabrication need only affect the construction process and not the end-product (BRE 2001). It is common practise nowadays to use prefabricated components such as trussed roofs and precast concrete sections, however for the purposes of this study, the terms prefabrication and off-site manufacture are applied to bigger components, such as fully fitted toilet pods shown in Figure 1ab and external wall blocks with windows preinstalled and internal finishes applied. Figure 1a Source; http://www.archiexpo.com Figure 1b Source; http://www.stcinc.net/bahamar.html Figure 1a/1b; a prefabricated toilet and kitchen pod, ready to be lifted and secured on-site. Image and performance problems in the past have hindered the use of prefabrication, so it is useful to study the history to see if the same problems exist today. The mass production of prefabricated components started in the early twentieth century; however there are examples of its earlier use, including the UKs first iron bridge constructed in 1779 at Colebrookdale (BRE 2001). The major push for the use of prefabrication in the housing market occurred after both the First and Second World War (Arieff, A 2002). This was due to the period of reconstruction to account for the lack of new buildings constructed during the conflict, and the existing buildings that were damaged as a consequence of the conflict. Prefabrication suited the needs of the times as it provided a fast and affordable solution to the housing shortage. It addressed the lack in construction skills that existed after the wars and provided jobs in the factories for many people. It also provided a solution as to what to do with the large facilities that were constructed for armament manufacture during the war. Prefabrication enabled effective material management, reducing wastage. This was important at the time as there was a shortage in materials after the massive focus on production of components used for war. In October 1944 the Housing (Temporary Accommodation) Act was passed that gave the Government the power to spend  £150M on the construction of temporary housing. This led to around 157,000 temporary houses being erected from 1945-1948 (BRE 2001). This figure is less then was anticipated by the programme and subsequently led to the poor perception of the construction method. Factors that have also slowed development of off-site manufacture include the poor quality of earlier systems, the difficulty involved with the maintenance of systems installed after the war and the poor attention to detail that was incorporated into their design also hampered the development (BRE 2001). Due to the difference in physical construction processes compared to traditional construction, prefabrication produces the opportunity to capitalise on many benefits. Therefore new OSM systems boast many advantages from using off-site manufacture as a primary construction method. These include an increased speed of construction. A case study from modular building contractors Unite Modular Solutions reports of a 76 module, 32 self contained flats scheme in London that was fully erected in 8 days (Unite 2009). A study undertaken by Davis Langdon and Everest found that for the Peabody Trusts Murray Grove project in East London, a saving of 18 weeks was achieved compared with a conventional project (Davis Langdon Everest 2002). Due to the factory conditions in which the components are constructed, a higher level of quality can be incorporated into the end product. Problems occur on-site when adverse weather conditions affect the quality of components such as concrete. When the weather is adversely hot, too much water evaporates from the concrete whilst it is curing. If the temperature is too low the chemical reactions that happen during curing will take place too slow. Both these extremes will have detrimental effects on the compressive strength of the cured concrete (Mittelacher 1985). There is also less movement and shrinkage when the project is completed that means that the quality of the finishes and the level of attention to detail permissible mean that snagging time is reduced at the end of the project. This is the added time of making sure the finishing quality is satisfactory. The use of prefabrication can improve the health and safety conditions on-site. This done by eliminating the congestion on site as well as the amount of working from height that is necessary. This is because anything that is needed to be done at height can be done in the factory conditions on platforms under correct supervision. A paper produced by the Health and Safety Executive reports that HSE: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦statistics indicate that fatal accidents in construction are five times more likely than in the manufacturing sector. (Taylor 2009) The main advantage that makes OSM relevant to this study is the environmental benefits it is reported to bring to a construction project. With a higher standard of quality, optimum thermal efficiencies and air permeabilitys can be achieved consistently using OSM. When construction takes place on-site, there is more of a chance of thermal bridges and insufficient workmanship to reduce the thermal efficiencies of a component. In a factory, standardised components can be used in a controlled environment with correct supervision to achieve minimal tolerances in products. Less waste is produced during the manufacture stage compared to traditional methods of construction. This is due to lean processes and the efficient use of resources. The opportunity to re-use and recycle materials is also increased due to the controlled factory conditions. The factory environment means that components are produced correctly the first time, limiting waste. Another benefit is that the final design is locked at an early stage, so the opportunities for variations on-site are limited, and so less waste is generally produced. New OSM systems are constructed of a light weight steel frame, which has a reasonably low amount of embodied energy compared to materials such as concrete (Greenspec 2010). Clearly systems could be used that are more harmful to the environment than traditional methods of construction, however reports show undoubtedly that there is more potential to produce more environmentally friendly buildings using OSM. However there are disadvantages to using OSM. One contentious aspect is the cost. There are two sides to the argument; the first being that the process of using prefabrication is more expensive. A study by Davis Langdon showed that there is on average a cost premium of using OSM of between 10% and 25% (Rawlinson 2009). Others accept the premium in cost, however believe the loss in money is regained due to the reduced construction time and reduced snagging time due to the better quality. They also argue that the components are better designed for ease of maintenance and repair and so a saving can be made in the long term. The report by Rawlinson (2009) does state that the costs are regained through these savings for some or all of the costs, but does not quantify the amount. Other problems include the high set up costs of using the construction method. The majority of the construction work that is undertaken in the UK uses traditional methods of construction. Therefore there is only a very small skill base of trades people who are competent with the OSM processes. Although the training to learn these skills is not rigorous, over the entire United Kingdom it would amount to a sizeable sum. The cost of establishing prefabrication facilities is also very high and so this may be a factor as to why the construction method is not widely used. The aesthetics of OSM may also be a factor that has reduced the use of the construction process throughout the UK. The poor perception to past systems and very modular design of many OSM structures mean that the construction method does not suit everyones tastes. 2.2 The Climate Change Act 2008 The Climate Change Act 2008 is a piece of legislation that legally binds the United Kingdom to reduce its green house gas emissions. The main green house gas (GHG) which causes concern is carbon dioxide (C02). The reduction targets are an overall GHG emission cut of 80% by 2050, with an interim deadline of a reduction of 34% by 2022. This is compared to a baseline figure from 1990 of 593 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (MtC02) (National Audit Office 2008). Therefore a reduction of 34% is an emission level of 391MtC02 in 2022, and a proposed emission of 119 MtC02 for the year of 2050. The other GHGs named in the Act are methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride (Climate Change Act 2008 s24.1). The Act also makes provisions for other gases to be added to this list by the Secretary of State if they become of interest (s24.1g). Section 32.1 of the Act states that an independent body must be created, named the Committee on Climate Change. The duties of this body include providing advice on whether the GHG reduction targets should be altered and to what extent in order to meet them (s33), advising on the carbon budget (s34), advising on aviation and shipping emissions (s35), presenting progress reports to Parliament (s36) and to provide advice and assistance upon request (s38). The Act states that the Secretary of State, currently Chris Huhne, must set a carbon budgeting system. This is the process of stating the allowable GHG emissions within 5 year periods. This figure is set with the advice of the Committee on Climate Change (s9). Three of these periods are set at a time. The first 3 periods are 2008-2012, 2013-2017 and 2018-2022. The next 3 budget caps must be set by June 30th 2011 (Climate Change Act 2008 s4.2a+b). The United Kingdom is the first country to legally show its intentions for cutting its carbon emissions. The Act is aimed to pave the way for cutting emissions for other countries. In a video made by the Committee on Climate Change about building a low-carbon economy, Martin Parry member of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change says that the Act will set a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦landmark example to what other countries can do. It is hoped that the Act will increase the UKs energy awareness and help improve our carbon management. The Government hopes that this will move the UK into a low-carbon economy. It is hoped that because the Act is a long term measure, covering 40 years, it will encourage businesses to invest heavily in low carbon technologies, as there is reassurance that returns will be made from investments now. It has been established that the main area where the UKs GHG emissions can be reduced is in electricity production. In EcoCentroGen newsletter August 2009, it is reported that the Government predicts that around 40% of electricity will be from low carbon sources by 2020. However significant savings in emissions can be made in both the transport and housing industry. In the same newsletter, it is reported that by 2020: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦7 million homes will be involved in energy saving schemes, and more than 1.5 million households will be supported to produce their own clean energy The Chief Executive of the Committee on Climate Change, David Kennedy, highlighted four key areas where emission cuts can be made. These were electricity production, housing, transport and farming (Adam 2010). With about 27% of the UKs energy being consumed in the housing sector, there are substantial savings to be made (Farookhi 2008). Producing more energy efficient homes will reduce this figure. The Government will try to implement these savings through a variety of means. Examples of these may be through more stringent Building Regulations, financial initiatives for implementing renewable energy technologies, such as grants for installing solar panels or feed-back tariffs or by raising fuel prices. There is however some concern and criticism over the rate of decarbonisation the Act implies. The Kaya identity is an equation that shows the relationship between energy and human factors and the effect the combination of these has on total carbon emissions of a country. This equation states that the only method for reducing carbon emissions is to reduce either population, per capita GDP or the carbon intensity of the UKs economy. Governments tend not to manipulate population or GDP per capita as they do not receive public backing and disrupt economic growth. Therefore Government policies for reducing carbon emissions tend to focus on reducing the carbon intensity of the economy, and the Climate Change is no exception. It is argued that by using the Kaya Identity, the Climate Change Act 2008 has not taken into consideration the effects of population growth and per capita economic growth. It is argued that with the effect of a growing population and economic growth, to meet the reduce d emission targets of 2050, the UK would have to reduce the energy intensity and increase energy efficiency by a rate of 5.4% a year (Pielke Jr 2009). Pielke Jr argues that for this rate of decarbonisation to occur, the UK would have to have the same carbon efficiency as France achieved in 2006, by 2015. This would involve constructing around 30 nuclear power plants. It is argued that this is simply not feasible. Pielke Jr concludes by pointing out these unachievable targets have been set as the Acts approach to emissions reduction is backwards. Opposed to assessing what the ultimate rate of decarbonisation the UK is capable of achieving, and setting targets suitable to this, the Act has set practically impossible targets, and only now they have been made in law, the UK is thinking of ways of achieving them. 2.3 Building Regulations The current Building Regulation requirements are of interest to this study as they show the current energy efficiency standards of houses being constructed today. They will also be the means by which the Government will enforce changes in construction practice in order to meet the GHG emission reduction targets. Building Regulations are statutory instruments that are used to enforce the relevant legislation that dictate good standards of construction and safety in England and Wales. Schedule 1 of the Regulations consists of fourteen approved documents that cover the following subjects (http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/buildingregulations); Part A Structural safety Part B Fire safety Part C Site preparation and resistance to contaminants and moisture Part D Toxic substances Part E Resistance to sound Part F Ventilation Part G Sanitation, hot water safety and water efficiency Part H Drainage and waste disposal Part J Heat producing appliances Part K Protection from falling Part L Conservation of fuel and power Part M Access to and use of buildings Part N Glazing safety Part P Electrical Safety The Building Regulations are the statutory instruments of the Building Act 1984. The Act makes provision for the Secretary of State to update or create new regulations for the purposes of health and safety, increasing the conservation of fuel or power and preventing waste of water (Building Act 1984 s1). Building Control was first used in London in 1189. This involved the enforcement of rules dictating party walls, rights of light and drainage. Around this time the introduction of consideration in design for fire-resistance buildings and means of escape in case of a fire were developed (Stephenson 2005). After the Fire of London in 1666, the first building Act became law. This Act made provisions for surveyors to be selected to ensure that the regulations we obeyed on construction sites. In 1984 the Building Act was passed and consolidated the various previous regulations to produce one main piece of legislation. Most building work requires Building Approval. This is the process of checking work done onsite complies with the Building Regulations. The duty of checking compliance with the Regulations is undertaken by Building Control Bodies. These approved inspectors can be from the Local Authority or they can be from the private sector (http://www.planningportal.gov.uk). Some forms of construction are exempt from the Building Regulations. These include porches, conservatories and some garages which are all subject to size, use, description, design, location and other requirements. If these requirements are not strictly met then the construction work requires building approval (http://www.kingston.gov.uk/browse/environment/buildingcontrol). The responsibility of following the Building Regulations falls to the person carrying out the work. To whom this responsibility falls to should be confirmed at the start of the work (Building Regulations Explanatory Handbook s2.4 2005). The Building Regulations state the allowable U-value of components to be used in new dwellings. U-values show the ability of a building component to conduct heat. Approved document L1B 2000 outlines the target minimum U-value of building components. To increase the energy performance of the overall building, the U-values of components must be as low as possible. Under Part L 2002, the U-Value of new build cavity walls is 0.35 W/m2K. For a comparison a 225mm solid brick wall has the average U-Value of 2.0 W/m2K (http://www.syec.co.uk/factsheets/U_value_factsheet.pdf) The Building Regulations also state the allowable air permeability of new build dwellings. This is the rate of air leaving the building as well as the rate of new air entering the building. A low air permeability figure means that the air will not escape and energy will not be wasted. Under Part L of Schedule 1 of the Building Regulations the allowable air permeability is stated as  10m3/hm2 at 50Pa. These figures are relevant to this study as the benefits of a higher quality product coming from a factory environment, mean that these figures may be more easily achieved using prefabrication and off-site manufacturing techniques. 2.4 Literature Review Summary From the research of the respective literature the benefits of prefabrication have been presented. These are the increase in quality, speed of construction, health and safety on site and the environmental benefits these bring. The disadvantages the OSM produces as a construction method are an increase in the project cost, a potential unattractive aesthetic aspect and the high set up costs associated with new OSM facilities. The Building Regulations have been studied to show the standard to which new homes are built as a comparison to OSM. The targets of the Climate Change Act 2008 have been established. These are a 34% reduction by 2022 and an overall 80% reduction by 2050 compared to a baseline figure from 1990. In order for the UK to meet these targets, four key areas have been highlighted for action; one of these is the energy efficiency of the UKs housing stock. Studies have shown that these targets are very ambitious and for them to be achieved a radical change in how we design and build houses must be undertaken. From identifying the benefits of prefabrications, an argument can be made that this construction method could be the answer to producing more energy efficient homes. A methodology must now be formulated in order to collect data from the construction industry. This will involve identifying the participants for the study and a method for collecting data from them. It will also involve creating questions that will produce the required data. 3. Methodology 3.1 Scope of the Chapter This chapter will establish the method for collecting the data relevant to this study. It will set out the research aims and the rationale behind their selection. A section that explains the types of information studied will be included as well as an explanation of the participant design. A method for the analysis of the collected data will then be established. 3.2 Statement of Research Aim The aim of this research is to establish whether an increased use of off-site manufacture will produce a more energy efficient housing stock, as the UK gets closer to its carbon reduction deadline. The objectives of this study are; To identify the key advantages and disadvantages of prefabrication as a construction method. To identify the current requirements for energy efficiency in new build houses. To identify the requirements of the Climate Change Act 2008 and how this will affect the construction industry. To establish the current use and opinion of prefabrication/off-site manufacture in the construction industry 3.3 Rationale of the Research With the UKs housing stock producing approximately 30% of the UKs total carbon emissions, it is a sector where huge environmental gains can be made (House of Commons 2005). Off-site manufacture enables an improved finished quality so that optimum thermal efficiencies and air permeabilitys can be achieved consistently. Other benefits are that less waste is produced during the manufacture stage compared to traditional methods of construction and there is an increased opportunity to re-use and recycle materials in factory conditions. With the UK legally bound to reduce its GHG emissions by 34% by 2022 and 80% by 2050, action is required to make housing more energy efficient. 3.4 Secondary Research To establish the advantages and disadvantages of prefabrication, the current Building Regulations for energy efficiency and the targets set by the Climate Change Act 2008, a literature review was undertaken. This was done to establish all the information that is already known on the topic and to highlight any areas of study that have already been conducted. 3.5 Primary Research 3.6 Research Sample 3.7 Method of Analysis 3.8 Summary of Chapter

Marriage-Comparison Essay

Marriage, the union of two people, is satirically presented by Evelyn Waugh in the novel ‘A Handful of Dust’ and by Edward Albee in the play ‘Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?’ Both authors adopt a chilling approach to demonstrate the endemic of negative attitudes and pressures of 1930’s London and 1960’s American society placed on to moral institutions such as marriage, with the central protagonists exposed under a powerful ‘microscope’ to reveal the detrimental effects of society. Albee illustrates the emotional strains inflicted on to individuals and couples aspiring to the American Dream and more importantly the result of failing a dream that is unreachable by the majority. In Albee’s play, George and Martha are metaphysically exposed to the ‘peeling away’ of the illusion that surrounds their marriage to reveal the ‘murky opaque depths’ of reality. Waugh on the other hand shows the corrupt and barbaric upper class London society at the time of the Great Industrial Depression, evoking a story of Tony and his manipulative, ‘cat like’ wife Brenda’s failing marriage, and that of the culture and civilisation Waugh so admired. Both Albee and Waugh employ the use of irony in their chosen settings. In ‘Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?’ as ‘large, boisterous’ Martha turns on the light the audience are subjected to an emotional battlefield. Set in a success driven university campus which is a microcosm of society, it is soon made clear it is not a place of learning, achievement and sophisticated culture, one of lust, deceptions and sadness, a place where ‘musical beds is the faculty sport’. People like Martha are motivated by greed and self interest; this indicates the threat of America being New Carthage, destroyed not by another country but by internal corruption and spiritual emptiness, as George reads from ‘The Decline of the West,’ Albee’s Cold War subtext is clear. In contrast Waugh gently eases the reader in to the amicable setting of rural England, with an absence of ‘harsh words’ and ‘scenes of domestic playfulness’ between the Last’s, indicating an external picture of a content marriage. The setting is an extended metaphor of their marriage. Set in Hetton Abbey, named after Arthurian Legend, indicates their marriage is similarly illusionary. With irony, Brenda is appropriately placed in to the bedroom, Guinevere, wife of King Arthur burnt for adultery; this gives the reader an ominous feel from the outset about the subsequent events. The novel depicts Tony’s love for the ancestral, primogeniture home, which like his marriage is ‘devoid of interest.’ Tony is trapped by the ‘huge and quite hideous house’ as Brenda is in the marriage, suggested by Waugh’s use of death imagery used when describing the house ‘like a tomb.’ The ‘damp had penetrated in to one corner’ further indicates the internal decay of the Last’s ‘not in perfect repair’ marriage. The fact Brenda resents Hetton as she has moved there and left her family home- ‘I shouldn’t feel so badly about it if it were a really lovely house- like my house for instance,’ quickly weaves a negative undercurrent to their apparent happiness. Illusions versus reality feature in the marriages in both Waugh’s and Albee’s works. In ‘Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?’ George and Martha’s illusionary son provides escapism, acting as a ‘bean bag’ cushioning their tempestuous, ‘crushing’ marriage from reality. However as the son has been talked about the illusion has become reality too the extreme that the illusion now controls them. The son highlights the pretentious society in which George and Martha live, forced to create a son to fill societies illusions of perfection. The son is for Martha to feel she has fulfilled her role as a woman. However the ‘child’ is not only a desire for fecundity within their relationship but also a projection through which they expose their personal desires, needs and problems. Ironically the son that was supposed to bring the couple closer has become a reason to fight being used as a tool to undermine one another. By ‘killing the son,’ George is realising that the illusion has become out of control, Martha has broke the ‘rules’ by telling Nick and Honey, the ‘pawns’ in their games. The ‘child’s’ death signifies a milestone in their understanding of marriage, George no longer has to compromise his world of reality and Martha is no longer in danger of losing herself in a world of ‘Ilyria’. Symbolically this happens the day before the child would turn 21. Through the child, Albee as an absurdist is illustrating his view that a life of illusion was wrong because it created a false content for life. George and Martha’s empty marriage can clearly only survive if they abandon their illusions. Nick also embodies the illusion in ‘Who’s afraid of Virginia Woolf.’ Nick represents the Arian race with his ‘blondie’ hair and blue eyes are initially seen as†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ However his marriage to the slim- hipped ‘mouse’ is based upon pretence as the child they married for was only a phantom pregnancy. Added to this monetary gain, just as in the Polly Cockpurse of Waugh’s Belgravia, lies at the core of †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Waugh’s ‘A Handful of Dust’ similarly is based on illusion. The barbaric characters and emotionless buildings provide the reader with an external falsity. Mrs Beaver represents the destructive forces of modernity with her suggestion of ‘chromium plating.’ Mrs Beaver’s character conflicts with Tony’s as she destroys old buildings, Tony clings to every ‘glazed brick or encaustic tile’ at Hetton. Tony’s nostalgic ‘feudal’ nature is arguably one of he main reasons for the breakdown of his marriage. Described as ‘stiff white collar’ suggests he has a refusal to change and ironically at the end is left reading Dickens showing inevitable he is stuck in the past. Tony has been blinded by Hetton which provides him with ‘constant delight and exultation,’ however is ‘formerly one of the notable houses of the country’ and not in ‘perfect repair’ therefore ‘dev oid of interest’ to anyone except Tony. Romanticism dominates through Tony, his search for ideals that his parents possessed ‘inseparable in Guinevere’ are unattainable by Tony. Similarly George and Martha can not reach the ideals set by the American dream. George is symbolic of the past who simply ‘sift(s) everything’ plunging him in to a world of history which is as important to him as Tony’s ‘shining city.’ He is a ‘bog in the history department’ unable to compete with the ‘direct threat’ imposed by ‘well- put- together’ Nick who represents ‘the new wave of the future.’ As a scientist he signifies clinical facts and evidence; he is emotionless like his marriage. At ‘twenty eight’ Nick is successful and a high achiever unlike George at ‘fifty something’ who is still ‘in the History department’ and only ran it ‘for four years, while the war was on, but that was because everyone was away.’ Albee seeks to emphasise the sense of alienation, in modern men. George thus attacks the decay of individualism: ‘You’re the one who’s going to make all that trouble†¦making everyone the same.’ History presents a cynical view, George prophesises as he reads out ‘the west must†¦eventually fall’ materialism dominates over culture resulting in sterile intellectualism. However George bares one key element that Tony realisation does not. George recognises the flaws in his ‘dump’ of a marriage whereas Tony similar to Honey is blinded and does not grasp the ‘sad, sad, sad’ truth embodying his marriage. Tony refuses to accept how ‘warped and separated’ he and Brenda have become. The illusion of George and Martha’s marriage is portrayed through language, for when language stops reality exists. George and Martha’s continual battle of incessant banter and ‘total war’ masks a more sinister and damaging reality and therefore, their fear of silence. Truth is shown through non verbal, theatrical devices ‘throwing flowers’ and the use of a toy gun, creating desperate humour through deep anxiety and expectations. Speech is used to gain power and control in order to deceive others. Ironically George comments ‘Martha’s a devil with language’ showing she is manipulative with her acerbic speech and has dominance in the relationship, ‘(Martha) wears the pants in this marriage because someone has to.’ This use of clichà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s shows a loss of capacity to speak the truth, ‘Your in a straight line†¦.and it doesn’t lead anywhere†¦.except maybe the grave’ underlined by t he root of terror in the play, the notion of life being meaningless. The regressive language is symbolic of the Martha and George being trapped by their childhoods and therefore they acquire attacking roles in a childish manner. However in contrast the callous Martha uses beautiful language when talking about their child, ‘And his eyes were green†¦green with†¦if u peered so deep in to them†¦so deep†¦bronze†¦bronze parentheses around the irises†¦such green eyes’ showing that when sincerity and love exists the aggressive language stops. At the end the simple, basic language, stripped of all metaphors and clichà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s reflects the simple, basic reality that George and Martha now face. In contrast to Albee’s use of vibrant and destructive language, in ‘A Handful of Dust’ conventional, banal and ordinary language dominates. Similarly to George and Martha, Brenda and Tony are shown in scenes of childlike playfulness. The alphabet diet is cute and endearing, but has an underlying tension as they are confined by the constraints the diet creates. The emptiness of the emotionless, large dining room they dine in which ‘even today mild elsewhere, it was bitterly cold in the dining hall’ further shows a lack of warmth between characters. The reader’s first encounter of the Lasts boosts a content marriage ‘While he ate breakfast Brenda read to him from the papers’ however the reader is aware of the negative undertones of the monotonous marriage ‘These scenes of domestic playfulness had been more or less continuous in Tony and Brenda’s life for seven years.’ Waugh stylistically and subtly reveals problems through his use of setting ‘There seemed to be no way of securing an even temperature in that room.’ The reader is also lead to question the stab ility of the Lasts marriage through Mrs Beaver comments ‘everyone thought (Brenda) would marry Jock,’ and ‘(Tony’s) a prig. I should say it was time that she began to be bored.’ George and Martha, the quintessentially dysfunctional couple are emotionally trapped by their respective childhoods, as a consequence they both are exposed to low self image and esteem. The history of the couples past is slowly revealed by Albee to the audience. Martha tells Nick and Honey in Act One that her mother died when she was young and she became very close to her father, she married briefly but her father had the marriage annulled. After college she fell in love with George which she thought would please her father. However George is not the high achiever that would satisfy her father. Martha is a lost ‘Daddy’s girl’ who hasn’t left behind the prospect of his unconditional love. George is also revealed to have had a troubled childhood. The revealed plot of his failed novel where a teenager kills both his parents is later publicised by Martha that George was in fact the teenager in his novel. Although the audience doesn’t know whether this is true it does explain George’s guilt about his parents. Albee is suggesting through these parental bonds that human relationships stem from human vulnerability. In ‘A Handful of Dust’ parental roles do not strive in adultous ‘fashionable’ London. Brenda and Tony are ineffectual as parents and as John Andrew reveals he prefers the groom ‘Ben far more.’ Waugh uses John Andrew as a satirical tool to expose the falsity of upper class society. He also reveals Tony’s ineffectualness in disciplining his son and the emotionless Brenda as a direct contrast to Jenny Abdul Akbar who John Andrew is ‘infatuated’ by the attention she provides him with. John Andrew’s death acts as a watershed in the novel. For Brenda the death symbolises her last link with Tony and a chance to escape the world she is trapped by and ironically highlights Tony misjudgement as he does not ‘know Brenda so well’. As Brenda ‘burst in to tears’ this is arguably the realisation that she has thought of John Beaver over her own son and goes to the extremes of immorality of ‘Oh thank God ’ when she is told her son has died, not a reaction expected from a mother that has been told her son has died. The death simply signifies the end of the Lasts marriage ‘Don’t you see Tony, its all over.’ Brenda with her manipulative, ‘cat like’ ways who utilises her female charms to her full advantage and is arguably more responsible for the breakdown of her marriage. As she applies her make up it acts as a symbolic ‘mask’ to cover up the reality of the deceit. In order to get her flat she ‘sat close to Tony on the sofa and ate some sugar out of his cup’ and ‘rubbed against his cheek in the way she had,’ this seductive way highlights the weakness of men. By getting the flat Tony is compromising the repairs he wants to make to Hetton. On the other hand Waugh suggests that it is Tony that it is pushing Brenda in to a society of adultery. Portrayed as an ‘imprisoned princess’ in a castle as though a character in a fairytale, Brenda is frustrated by her limited role and Beaver acts as a lifeline to get her out of the ‘big house.’ She is clearly eager for information of London and ‘jokes that have been going around for six weeks.’ Brenda however stays in control of the marital breakdown. The letter that Brenda leaves is merely a pencil note showing her lack of commitment and respect for Tony. The pencil is symbolic of the marital vows that can easily be erased and irretrievable like death vows ‘Ashes to ashes, dust to dust.’ Waugh uses Tony’s search for a ‘hidden city’ to show Tony’s transition from one period of his life to another. Similarly Brenda moves to London in search of a new chapter in her life. Although we can argue that Tony’s decision to go on the exploration shows courage and strength, someone else has planned the trip therefore it is ineffectual. His journey to enlightenment is made in intellectual darkness symbolically leading to his worst nightmare. Added to this the fever he acquires on his journey is representive of his whole life being a grotesque hallucination. Tony ‘had a clear picture in his mind’ that the city he was searching for would be like a ‘transfigured Hetton’ illustrating that Tony is still trapped in the past, inspiring pathos from the reader. When Tony is faced with the harsh reality of life, his real world is destroyed. Romanticism can not save Tony from reality, it is not a refuge and cannot save a near innocent man from being sacrificed because of his complacency. Arguable through a number of short scenes in the jungle and London, Waugh is trying to show similarities of the two settings ‘her ladyship has gone to live in Brazil’ both uncivilised worlds are ‘oceans apart’ yet are both uncivilised and animalistic, inhabited by ‘savages’. Religion is an occurring theme in both Albee’s play and Waugh novel. Albee uses blasphemy ‘Goddam’ at both the start and end of act one. The audience may not be surprised at this language in the godless environment we are introduced however we are more concerned about Martha’s comment that she was an atheist at school and furthermore the uncertainty of whether she still is. Marriage as a religious bond makes the audience doubt the importance of religion when presented with a ‘sewer’ of a marriage. Religion is represented through Honeys father although it is corrupted by the mention of him having money which further questions Nicks motives for marrying Honey. At the end of the play the mystery of religion begins when language ends through the use of ‘Jesus Christ.’ Injuxtaposition Waugh makes little references to religion. Tony attends church on Sundays from which he gained ‘great satisfaction.’ ‘On days of exceptional clearness, the spires of six churches’ could be seen from Hetton instigating that it is Tony who includes religion in to his life not Brenda. Hetton is a city of romantism and fantasy rather than a city of God. Animal imagery is referred to in both texts, to emphasise the moral crudity of events taking place. As Nick ‘mount(s) (Martha) like a goddam dog’ in order to gain status, it shows the need to succeed overcomes morality. Martha an ‘earth mother’ is tolerant of the ‘lunk heads’ who strive for promotion using her in ‘totally pointless infidelities.’ Waugh however uses animal imagery to further his satirical approach and emphasise the farcical characters. Polly Cockpurse is referred to as being similar to a ‘monkey’ by John Andrew. Money orientated, she is a predator only acting for her own interests, after rich men for their money. Mrs Beaver similarly extends the satirical animal imagery by suggesting she like a beaver, digging for gossip. Both of these characters are deliberately ridiculous, highlighting the absurdity of the glamorous Belgravia backdrop in which these people are created. Similarly Waugh uses pathetic fallacy to emphasise characters’ emotions and relationships. Directly after commenting on the Lasts’ marriage, Waugh makes references to the weather around Hetton ‘mist in the hollows and pale sunshine on the hills†¦..the undergrowth was wet, dark in the shadows’ which directly suggests an ominous feel surrounding the Lasts’ marriage. When Tony goes ‘In search of a city,’ Waugh is suggesting that similar to the waves, Tony is ‘plunging†¦in to the black depths.’ In the same way ‘the sky- over head was neutral and steely with swollen clouds’ symbolically showing that Tony is ‘exposed’ in a world that is unclear. However when Tony has a liaison with Thà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½se de Vitrà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ there was ‘A week of blue water that grew clearer and more tranquil daily, of sun that grew warmer’ presents the idea that Tony is happy although with no clear blue skies he is vulnerable and ‘lost.’ Likewise as Thà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½se de Vitrà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ ‘said goodbye to Tony’ the ‘Blue water came to an end’ and ‘rain fell continuously’ showing Tony’s emotions are as changeable as the weather. The ‘light breeze’ and ‘brilliant, cool sunshine’ at Tony’s funeral represents that the turbulent emotions have come to an end. In one ‘liquor ridden night’ Martha and George have been forced to face their worst fears. As Martha ‘chews on her ice cubes’ the faà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ade in which surrounds there marriage has been chipped away leaving inner truth and emotion that has previously been undisclosed. In the closing scene to the play, the audience endure a feeling of pathos for Martha and George, encouraged by the pace of the dialogue slowing down and the decrease in volume allowing the audience to reflect. The final images are of George and Martha left ‘just us’ in a state of unity. George sings at the end ‘Who’s afraid of Virginia Woolf?’ and Martha replies ‘I am.’ As the song represents being scared of life without illusion this response shows Martha is scared of a life of reality. In contrast ‘A Handful of Dust’ ends with a change of owner and the ending of the regime of tradition at Hetton that controlled Tony symbolising the end of Brenda and Tony’s tumultuous marriage. I agree with Rosa Flannery who suggests the breeding of silver foxes is ‘representative of the new breed of savages that roam England,’ Waugh is presenting a landscape of deceit and greed which prevails in a materialistic world; ‘They lived in pairs; some were moderately tame but it was unwise to rely upon them.’ It is not without sharp irony that Brenda survives, whilst Tony languishes in a†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. In both texts the marriages presented are encapsulated by society’s expectations that they are blinded by illusion. When faced with reality Martha and George can unite, however Tony and Brenda Lasts marriage is as unsubstantial as ‘A Handful of Dust.’

Top Choices of Cold War Topics for an Essay

Top Choices of Cold War Topics for an Essay One of the very first things you question to comprehend in earning your topic choice is that there's a difference between history and current affairs. You might also think about focusing on several different techniques to take care of either disorder. Bear in mind a topic can help determine the end result of a narrative. Quite simply, you might use distinctive approaches to problem solving. The Lost Secret of Cold War Topics for an Essay At any time you catch yourself feeling captivated by an individu essay or article, take a good look at it. Naturally, you won't always have a true situation to discuss for every single topic sometimes you must borrow ideas from different people or merely apply your imagination. You may believe that interesting essay titles do all of the work, enabling you to add obvious examples and share ordinary ideas. Write a list of ideas you've got or a list of things you're interested in. Understanding Cold War Topics for an Essay Your paragraphs do not connect one another's meaning and the whole thought of your essay may be incomprehensible. Perhaps you simply do not know the subject well enough, and that's the reason you cannot locate the idea for your history essay. Okay, now you have the fundamentals about how to go for an informative essay topic, let's dig into some fantastic ideas! If you would like to write a superior history essay you'd better select a topic that's familiar to you. You've got to compose an informative essay. Select an intriguing essay topic, and you will begin enjoying it. Selecting the correct essay topic can at times be rather challenging. The Cold War involved just about the full world but mainly the USA and Russia. Baby boom was recorded that lasted for two or more decades. The cold war is quite a wide subject to center on. The Second World War played a substantial part in the evolution of the cold war. What the In-Crowd Won't Tell You About Cold War Topics for an Essay Regardless of the kind of academic paper you're writing, topics are always likely to be your focus. In the very first paragraph you produce a succinct biography about the individual or a group which you have selected. Make certain you take them seriously as a few of the topics may have an intriguing twist which you will need to discover and describe in the text . Needless to say, deciding on the perfect topic also is determined by the length of your paper. Cold War Topics for an Essay - the Conspiracy Writing an essay is a vital role in academe life. Plagiarism is the very last thing you will need to be worried about while seeking for aid with your eating disorder essays or term papers. Academic papers cannot contain any signals of plagiarism. Cold War Topics for an Essay Explained The primary difference is that educational topics are typically a little more school-based, meaning you'll need to have at least some understanding of the subject of the text. Even if you get passionate about the subject and you would like to argue for a side, individuals want to know more about the authentic historical facts, not in your opinion. The teachers don't always assign the specific topic. The Appeal of Cold War Topics for an Essay Essay writing is normally practiced is schools. Your essay might incorporate the explanations for teen pregnan cy and talk about the present rates of teen pregnancy and potential solutions. Chancing upon a thesis can be a challenge however, you can find assist. If you've already graduated from college or university and are looking for a fantastic job, you will need to get a persuasive resume to impress your future employer.

Marketing Analysis Marketing Strategy Essay - 1248 Words

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